Skills and Knowledge

Traditionally, teachers were concerned with inculcating knowledge in particular curricular areas. There is now much more awareness of the skills which pupils need in society and concern as to how best to develop these skills. Other papers in the Toolkit consider effective ways of helping pupils to acquire knowledge. This paper will consider skills linked to learning and the “generic” skills which are developed within the curriculum.

Points Arising from Research

There may be a perceived or actual tension between traditional subject teaching and the need to develop “generic” skills which will be useful to individuals and to society
Pupils need to develop transferable skills and attitudes for lifelong learning in a rapidly changing society
Instrumental Enrichment strategies have been seen to improve academic attainment (see below)

Key Elements of Skills and Knowledge

The theory of Structural Cognitive Modification (SCM)

This theory, developed by Reuven Feuerstein, focuses on the skills pupils require to learn effectively. Some education authorities, in Britain and abroad, have implemented his Instrumental Enrichment (IE - or sometimes FIE) programme in a systematic way.

The theory of Modifiability

Feuerstein argues, on the basis of decades of research, that all human being are capable of being modified
He demonstrates that effective learning can modify the structure of the brain
He argues that it can also modify behaviour and the structure of individuals’ thinking
He rejects theories which assert that IQ is largely immutable and dependent on genetics
He believes that failings in traditional academic or IQ assessments have been related to individuals’ cultural impoverishment, resulting from lack of Mediated Learning Experiences (MLE)
Vygotsky said that effective learning occurs in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which involves knowing what a pupil’s current state of knowledge is and assessing his/her potential
ZPD theory requires teaching to be geared to this information
SCM asserts that it is possible to create effective teaching programmes for all individuals, even the brain-damaged and severely culturally deprived by understanding the individual’s ZPD and aligning teaching accordingly, to effectively meet pupils’ specific learning requirements.

Assessment

SCM involves assessing individuals in ways which are free from assumptions about cultural experience, language and knowledge
Feuerstein devised the Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) which provides an extremely extensive and varied battery of culture-free tests, though these are made available only to those trained by Feuerstein’s International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential and are not widely available
However, more manageable tests can be used such as the Cognitive Abilities Profile by Ruth Deutsch and Michelle Keene, which provide an indication of an individual’s potential so that teaching can be tailored accordingly.

Instrumental Enrichment (IE)

Once an individual’s potential has been assessed, a programme of IE is prepared
IE involves 15 separate types of activity, each designed to help overcome particular cognitive deficiencies
The aim is to develop and nurture pupils’ cognitive skills and improve their self-image and levels of motivation
The IE programme can make use of Mediate Learning Experiences in which the mediator (ie the teacher) helps the pupil understand the task to the point where the pupil can achieve without help
Feuerstein claims that the type of progress resulting from IE is self-perpetuating
Once the cognitive skills have been developed, and when the pupil is ready to tackle more formal, traditional curricular material, Feuerstein believes that in order to maximise the potential for pupil success, an IE supervisor should oversee and co-ordinate pupil’s progress when he or she enters the mainstream curriculum and manage the provision of support where necessary

Inclusion

The SCM theory is a powerful tool in the agenda of inclusion

Poor academic performance and failure are seen largely as the result of lack of MLE in the child’s background
One element in SCM is modification of the pupil’s environment, which involves parents/carers at home, as well as the school environment
All individuals are seen to possess the potential for development
The mediator has a holistic picture of the individual and understands the individual and his/her potential

Research on Instrumental Enrichment

An American audit of the school curriculum identified a close relationship between the cognitive abilities developed through IE and those taught in the curriculum (See references below to New Horizons for Learning)

A number of American case studies have identified academic benefits in the IE approach. An example was in Leander in Texas where pupils were given significant amounts of time on IE activities instead of Science and Social Subjects. At the end of the intervention, pupils in the focus group were seen to have made significant gains in traditional academic performance, compared to the control group. (See New Horizons references below)

Feuerstein’s own research over many decades is very illuminating and informative demonstrating remarkable achievements with immigrant children as well as those with specific disabilities

Curricular skills - Forgetting Feuerstein….

Even without adopting the theory of SCM, it may be valuable to examine the curriculum to identify ways in which similar approaches and activities may be used effectively to improve children’s basic hen, to maximise the potential for pupil success, skills for life and empower pupil learning
Evidence suggests that developing cognitive skills in a content-free way may produce academic gains in subject teaching
It is increasingly important and valuable to consider ways in which cross-curricular liaison in secondary schools can enhance the teaching of skills
There have been reports that different subjects have adopted different approaches to the same skills (eg Maths procedures, letter-writing etc)
A theme in the development of Personal Learning Planning is the identification of “cross-cutting” skills – generic core competences which could be assessed across the curriculum
Within the Higher Still programme, Core Skills (generic non-subject specific competences) have been seen as crucial for pupils’ future working lives and for effective lifelong learning

Reflection and Discussion

Do you see a tension between the needs of the mainstream curriculum and SCM principles?

Is it worth sacrificing something to help assess and develop individuals’ cognitive abilities?

Apart from SCM, are you happy with the awareness of and emphasis on “generic” skills?

Some Activities Relating To the Issue of Skills and Knowledge

Key element	Objective	Action
Some examples and suggestions
The theory of Modifiability	Failings in traditional academic or IQ assessments have been related to individuals’ cultural impoverishment	It is interesting to compare some of Feuerstein’s finding in studies of immigrants to Israel with the way some of our deprived children behave - eg tendencies towards impulsive behaviour. Is there an argument for consideration of IE strategies for selected disadvantaged pupils?
Assessment	SCM involves assessing individuals in ways which are free from assumptions IE involves 15 separate types of activity Robert Fisher’s book (see references) gives details of the 15 instruments. Have a look at these to consider how this type of work might find a place in the school context	It is interesting to look at the sorts of assessment which SCM uses. These are often of a fun nature, with many visual puzzles and problem-solving tasks. Some of these approaches could translate to curricular contexts.
Instrumental Enrichment	Instrumental Enrichment IE involves 15 separate types of activity	Robert Fisher’s book (see references) gives details of the 15 instruments. Have a look at these to consider how this type of work might find a place in the school context
Inclusion	All individuals are seen to have potential for development	Feuerstein’s philosophy is highly inclusive. To some extent this is very much a matter of the teacher’s frame of mind. It is also related to the teacher’s knowledge of the individual. Do you have a clear idea of each pupil’s cognitive potential?
Research on IE	Pupils were given significant amounts of time on IE activities instead of Science and Social Subjects	Consider this strategy in the context of your own school. Is there an argument for sacrificing some curricular work in order to make use of IE-type activities? Is this a whole-school issue or can individual teachers/departments consider this?
Curricular skills	Cross-curricular liaison in secondary schools	Secondary teachers can carry out an audit of key skills which are likely to be of general application. Are there any other curricular areas in which these are being taught? Can departments/teachers coordinate approaches to skills teaching?